< Previousvi Teknik Pemanfaatan Tenaga Listrik3.2. Alat-Alat Memasak .......................................................................... 251 3.2.1. Toaster ................................................................................ 251 3.2.2. Kompor Listrik ..................................................................... 255 3.2.3. Microwave Oven .................................................................. 262 3.3. Alat-Alat Pemanas & Pendingin ...................................................... 267 3.3.1. Pengering Rambut .............................................................. 267 3.3.2. Kulkas dan Freezer ............................................................. 271 3.3.3. Alat Pendingin Ruangan ...................................................... 277 3.3.4. Alat Pemanas Air ................................................................. 283 4. SISTEM PENGENDALIAN ....................................................................... 288 4.1. Sistem Pengendali Elektronik ......................................................... 291 4.1.1. Pendahuluan ....................................................................... 291 4.1.2. Pengendali Tidak Kontinyu .................................................. 291 4.1.3. Pengendali Dua-Posisi ........................................................ 291 4.1.4. Pengendali Kontinyu ........................................................... 293 4.1.5. Pengendali Campuran.......................................................... 297 4.1.6. Pengendali Elektronik .......................................................... 299 4.2. Sistem Pengendali Elektronika Daya .............................................. 304 4.2.1. Pendahuluan ....................................................................... 304 4.2.2. Komponen Semikonduktor Daya ......................................... 305 4.2.3. Penyearah ........................................................................... 312 4.2.4. Pengendali Tegangan AC ................................................... 323 4.2.5. Kontrol Kecepatan dan Daya Motor Induksi Fasa Tiga ....... 324 4.2.6. Persiapan, Pengoperasian, dan Pemeriksaan Pengendali Elektronika Daya ................................................................. 327 4.3. Sistem Pengendalian Motor ............................................................ 331 4.3.1. Kontaktor Magnit ................................................................. 333 4.3.2. Kontak Utama dan Kontak Bantu ........................................ 334 4.3.3. Kontaktor Magnit dengan Timer .......................................... 335 4.3.4. Rele Pengaman Arus Lebih (Thermal Overload Relay) ...... 336 4.3.5. Mengoperasikan dan Memelihara Sistem Pengendali Elektromagnetik ................................................................... 337 4.4. Elektro Pneumatik ........................................................................... 343 4.4.1. Pendahuluan ....................................................................... 343 4.4.2. Simbol-Simbol ..................................................................... 343 4.4.3. Sistem Komponen ............................................................... 349 5. MESIN LISTRIK ........................................................................................ 353 5.1. Transformator Satu Fasa ................................................................ 356 5.1.1. Konstruksi dan Prinsip Kerja ............................................... 356 5.1.2. Transformator Ideal ............................................................. 358 Teknik Pemanfaatan Tenaga Listrik vii 5.1.3. Transformator Berbeban ..................................................... 360 5.1.4. Pengujian Transformator ..................................................... 364 5.1.5. Paralel Transformator .......................................................... 367 5.2. Transformator Tiga Fasa ................................................................. 369 5.2.1. Konstruksi Transformator .................................................... 369 5.2.2. Hubungan Transformator Tiga Fasa ................................... 373 5.2.3. Pengujian Transformator Tiga Fasa .................................... 377 5.3. Transformator Khusus ..................................................................... 381 5.3.1. Autotransformator ................................................................ 381 5.3.2. Transformator Pengukuran .................................................. 382 5.4. Generator Arus Searah ................................................................... 384 5.4.1. Konstruksi Mesin Arus Searah ............................................ 384 5.4.2. Tegangan Induksi ................................................................ 392 5.4.3. Reaksi Jangkar .................................................................... 393 5.4.4. Hubungan Generator Arus Searah ...................................... 394 5.4.5. Efisiensi ............................................................................... 396 5.4.6. Karakteristik Generator ........................................................ 397 5.5. Motor Arus Searah .......................................................................... 402 5.5.1. Prinsip Dasar ....................................................................... 402 5.5.2. Persamaan Tegangan dan Daya ......................................... 402 5.5.3. Torsi ..................................................................................... 403 5.5.4. Rugi-rugi Daya dan Efisiensi ............................................... 404 5.5.5. Macam-macam Hubungan Motor Arus Searah ................... 404 5.5.6. Karakteristik Motor Arus Searah .......................................... 406 5.6. Motor Induksi Tiga Fasa .................................................................. 408 5.6.1. Konstruksi dan Prinsip Kerja ............................................... 408 5.6.2. Frekuensi dan Slip Rotor ..................................................... 413 5.6.3. Rangkaian Ekuivalen ........................................................... 414 5.6.4. Torsi dan Daya .................................................................... 416 5.6.5. Penentuan Parmeter Motor Induksi ..................................... 420 5.6.6. Pengaturan Kecepatan Motor Induksi Tiga Fasa ................ 422 5.6.7. Pemilihan Motor ................................................................... 425 5.7. Generator Sinkron ........................................................................... 427 5.7.1. Pendahuluan ....................................................................... 427 5.7.2. Konstruksi ............................................................................ 427 5.7.3. Prinsip Kerja ........................................................................ 433 5.7.4. Alternator Tanpa Beban ...................................................... 435 5.7.5. Alternator Berbeban ............................................................ 436 5.7.6. Menentukan Resistansi dan Reaktansi ............................... 437 5.7.7. Pengaturan Tegangan ......................................................... 439 5.7.8. Kerja Paralel Alternator ....................................................... 442 5.8. Motor Sinkron .................................................................................. 444 5.8.1. Prinsip Kerja ........................................................................ 444 5.8.2. Motor Saat Berbeban .......................................................... 445 viii Teknik Pemanfaatan Tenaga Listrik5.8.3. Daya Dihasilkan Motor Sinkron ........................................... 446 5.8.4. Efisiensi Motor Sinkron ........................................................ 447 5.8.5. Kurva V Motor Sinkron ........................................................ 448 5.8.6. Pengasutan Motor Sinkron .................................................. 449 5.9. Motor Satu Fasa .............................................................................. 451 5.9.1. Pendahuluan ....................................................................... 451 5.9.2. Motor Induksi Satu Fasa ..................................................... 452 5.9.3. Motor Seri Satu Fasa (Universal) ........................................ 464 5.10. Generator Set ................................................................................. 465 5.10.1. Pendahuluan ....................................................................... 465 5.10.2. Mesin Diesel ........................................................................ 466 5.10.3. Mengoperasikan Generator Set .......................................... 468 5.11. Memperbaiki Motor Listrik ............................................................... 477 5.11.1. Pendahuluan ....................................................................... 477 5.11.2. Perbaikan Dasar Motor Induksi ........................................... 478 5.11.3. Membongkar Kumparan Motor ............................................ 480 5.11.4. Pelilitan Kumparan Motor .................................................... 481 5.11.5. Laporan Pelaksanaan Pekerjaan ........................................ 486 6. PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER ............................................ 487 6.1. Pendahuluan ................................................................................... 487 6.1.1. Sejarah Perkembangan PLC................................................ 488 6.1.2. Keuntungan Penggunaan PLC............................................ 489 6.1.3. Penggunaan PLC di Industri ............................................... 489 6.2. Konsep Logika ................................................................................ 491 6.2.1. Fungsi Logika ...................................................................... 491 6.2.2. Rangkaian PLC dan Simbolik Kontak Logika ...................... 494 6.3. Arsitektur PLC ................................................................................. 495 6.3.1. Perangkat Keras .................................................................. 495 6.3.2. Arsitektur Internal ................................................................ 496 6.4. Pemrograman PLC ......................................................................... 498 6.4.1. Bahasa Pemograman PLC .................................................. 498 6.4.2. Operasi Pembacaan ............................................................ 499 6.4.3. Instruksi Dasar PLC ............................................................ 500 6.4.4. Pemograman dengan CX Programmer ............................... 503 6.4.5. Contoh Program .................................................................. 505 DAFTAR PUSTAKA RIWAYAT PENULIS Teknik Pemanfaatan Tenaga Listrik ix DAFTAR GAMBAR 1.1 Bahaya Primer Listrik ............................................................................. 1 1.2 Bahaya Sekunder Listrik ........................................................................ 2 1.3 Segitiga tegangan, arus, dan tahanan ................................................... 3 1.4 Tubuh manusia bagian dari rangkaian ................................................... 3 1.5 Sistem tegangan rendah di Indonesia .................................................... 3 1.6 Jenis Bahaya Listrik................................................................................ 4 1.7 Reaksi Tubuh terhadap Sengatan Listrik................................................ 6 1.8 Contoh-contoh penyebab bahaya listrik.................................................. 7 1.9 Pengamanan dengan isolasi pengaman ................................................ 7 1.10 Pengamanan dengan pemagaran .......................................................... 7 1.11 Kondisi tegangan sentuh pada mesin .................................................... 8 1.12 Saluran pentanahan sebagai pengaman terhadap tegangan sentuh .... 9 1.13 Pengawatan kabel pentanahan .............................................................. 10 1.14 Contoh pengaman otomatis ................................................................... 11 1.15 RCD/ELCB Fasa-Tiga ............................................................................ 11 1.16 Contoh klasifikasi peng-amanan alat portabel ....................................... 12 1.17 Contoh penggunaan alat listrik ............................................................... 13 1.18 Penggunaan tangga di daerah instalasi listrik ........................................ 13 1.19 Inspeksi kondisi peralatan ...................................................................... 13 1.20 Pemisahan si korban dari aliran listrik .................................................... 14 1.21 Tindakan pertolongan pertama .............................................................. 14 1.22 Titik pemutusan aliran listrik ................................................................... 15 1.23 Penandaan alat yang diperbaiki ............................................................. 15 1.24 Tanda pekerjaan selesai ........................................................................ 16 1.25 Bahaya Kebakaran dan Peledakan ........................................................ 17 1.26 Ukuran kabel .......................................................................................... 17 1.27 Pemakaian stop-kontak yang salah ....................................................... 18 1.28 Koneksi yang kendor .............................................................................. 18 1.29 Lingkungan sangat berbahaya ............................................................... 18 1.30 Jenis Arus Kesalahan ............................................................................ 19 2.1 Saluran energi listrik dari pembangkit ke pemakai ................................. 22 2.2 Generator ............................................................................................... 23 2.3 Penyaluran energi listrik ke beban ......................................................... 24 2.4 Distribusi Tenaga Listrik ke Konsumen .................................................. 25 2.5 Instalasi Penyediaan dan Pemanfaatan Tenaga Listrik ......................... 25 2.6 Saluran penghantar udara untuk bangunan-bangunan kecil (mengganggu keindahan pandangan) ................................................... 30 2.7 Saluran kabel bawah tanah pada suatu perumahan elit ........................ 30 2.8 Situasi .................................................................................................... 32 2.9 Denah rumah tipe T-125 lantai dasar ..................................................... 33 2.10 Instalasi rumah tipe T-125 lantai dasar .................................................. 34 2.11 Diagram satu garis instalasi listrik pada bangunan /gedung Tegangan Rendah ................................................................................. 35 2.12 Diagram satu garis instalasi listrik pada bangunan /gedung sistem Tegangan Menengah dan Tegangan Rendah ....................................... 36 x Teknik Pemanfaatan Tenaga Listrik 2.13 Diagram satu garis sambungan tenaga listrik tegangan menengah ...... 37 2.14 Kwh meter satu fasa analog dan digital ................................................. 38 2.15 Kwh meter tiga fasa analog dan digital .................................................. 38 2.16 Kwh meter tiga fasa dan KVARh ........................................................... 39 2.17 Rangkaian Kwh satu fasa dengan trafo arus ......................................... 41 2.18 Rangkaian Kwh dua fasa dengan sambungan tetap ............................. 41 2.19 Rangkaian Kwh tiga fasa dengan trafo arus dan trafo tegangan ........... 42 2.20 Contoh cubicle di ruang praktek POLBAN ............................................. 45 2.21 MCB (Miniatur Circuit Breaker) .............................................................. 46 2.22 Moulded Case Circuit Breaker ............................................................... 47 2.23 ACB (Air Circuit Breaker) ....................................................................... 47 2.24 OCB (Oil Circuit Breaker) ....................................................................... 48 2.25 VCB (Vakum Circuit Breaker) ................................................................ 48 2.26 SF6 CB (Sulfur Hexafluoride Circuit Breaker) ........................................ 49 2.27 Kabel NYA ............................................................................................. 50 2.28 Kabel NYM ............................................................................................. 50 2.29 Kabel NYY ............................................................................................. 50 2.30 Kabel N2XY ........................................................................................... 51 2.31 Kabel N2XY ........................................................................................... 51 2.32 Diagram Transmisi dan Distribusi .......................................................... 52 2.33 Rangkaian macam-macam Beban Sistem 3 fasa, 4 kawat .................... 53 2.34 Macam-macam Stop Kontak .................................................................. 54 2.35 Piranti-piranti menggunakan motor ........................................................ 55 2.36 Diagram satu garis ................................................................................. 56 2.37 Saluran instalasi bawah trotoar .............................................................. 71 2.38 Kelompok Gelombang Elektromagnetik ................................................. 79 2.39 Warna-warna Spektrum ......................................................................... 79 2.40 Energi – Panjang Gelombang – Lampu Pijar 500W ............................. 79 2.41 Grafik Kepekaan Mata ........................................................................... 80 2.42 Pandangan Silau .................................................................................... 80 2.43 Mata Manusia ........................................................................................ 80 2.44 Radian .................................................................................................... 81 2.45 Steradian ................................................................................................ 81 2.46 Lilin yang menyinari buku ...................................................................... 81 2.47 Fluks Cahaya ......................................................................................... 82 2.48 Iluminansi ............................................................................................... 82 2.49 Hukum kebalikan kuadrat iluminasi ....................................................... 83 2.50 Kurva Cosinus ........................................................................................ 83 2.51 Jenis pantulan dan armatur ................................................................... 85 2.52 Sumber Cahaya diatas bidang kerja ...................................................... 90 2.53 Diagram Polar Intensitas Cahaya Lampu Pijar ...................................... 90 2.54 Armatur Lampu Pijar .............................................................................. 90 2.55 Diagram perhitungan dan optimasi daya listrik pada sistem pencahayaan buatan ............................................................................. 111 2.56 Prosedur perencanaan teknis pencahayaan buatan .............................. 116 2.57 Membuat Api dari Gesekan Batu ........................................................... 121 2.58 Penerangan dengan Api ........................................................................ 121 2.59 Api Lilin .................................................................................................. 122 Teknik Pemanfaatan Tenaga Listrik xi 2.60 Lampu Minyak ........................................................................................ 122 2.61 Lampu Minyak dengan Tekanan ............................................................ 122 2.62 Lampu Gas ............................................................................................. 123 2.63 Lampu Busur .......................................................................................... 123 2.64 Joseph Swan dan lampu percobaannya ................................................ 126 2.65 Edison dan lampu percobaannya ........................................................... 126 2.66 Bohlam Bening ....................................................................................... 127 2.67 Bohlam Buram ....................................................................................... 128 2.68 Bohlam Lilin ............................................................................................ 128 2.69 Argenta ................................................................................................... 128 2.70 Superlux ................................................................................................. 129 2.71 Luster Bulat ............................................................................................ 129 2.72 Halogen .................................................................................................. 129 2.73 Halogen dengan reflektor ....................................................................... 130 2.74 Lampu Tabung ....................................................................................... 131 2.75 Tahapan kerja lampu fluoresen .............................................................. 133 2.76 Gerakan elektron gas ............................................................................. 133 2.77 Bentuk lampu hemat energi ................................................................... 134 2.78 Contoh Lampu Reklame ........................................................................ 136 2.79 Lampu Merkuri ....................................................................................... 137 2.80 Rangkaian dasar lampu merkuri tekanan tinggi ..................................... 138 2.81 Merkuri Reflector .................................................................................... 139 2.82 Merkuri Blended ..................................................................................... 140 2.83 Lampu Metal Halide ............................................................................... 140 2.84 Lampu SOX ............................................................................................ 141 2.85 Rangkaian dasar lampu sodium tekanan rendah ................................... 142 2.86 Lampu SON ........................................................................................... 143 2.87 Rangkaian dasar lampu sodium tekanan tinggi ..................................... 144 2.88 Pemasangan saklar kutub tunggal dan sebuah stop kontak .................. 146 2.89 Rangkaian saklar kutub ganda ............................................................... 147 2.90 Rangkaian saklar kutub tiga ................................................................... 148 2.91 Rangkaian Saklar Seri ........................................................................... 149 2.92 Pemasangan Saklar kelompok .............................................................. 150 2.93 Pemasangan Sepasang Saklar Tukar ................................................... 151 2.94 Pemasangan Sepasang Saklar Tukar dengan Penghantar Kabel ......... 152 2.95 Pemasangan Saklar Silang dengan sepasang saklar tukar ................... 153 2.96 Macam-macam Saklar Lampu ............................................................... 154 2.97 Pipa Union .............................................................................................. 155 2.98 Pipa Paralon / PVC ................................................................................ 156 2.99 Pipa Fleksibel ......................................................................................... 156 2.100 Tule ..................................................................................................... 156 2.101 Klem .................................................................................................... 157 2.102 Sambungan Pipa ................................................................................. 157 2.103 Sambungan Siku ................................................................................. 157 2.104 Kotak Sambung ................................................................................... 158 2.105 Saluran Tanah dan Netral disatukan (TN-C) ....................................... 160 2.106 Saluran Tanah dan Netral disatukan pada sebagian sistem (TN-C-S)...................................................................................................... 161 xii Teknik Pemanfaatan Tenaga Listrik 2.107 Saluran Tanah dan Netral dipisah ....................................................... 161 2.108 Saluran Tanah Sistem dan Saluran Bagian Sistem Terpisah ............. 162 2.109 Saluran tanah melalui impedansi ........................................................ 162 2.110 Tegangan sentuh tidak langsung ........................................................ 163 2.111 Tegangan sentuh dan tegangan langkah ............................................ 164 2.112 Elektroda batang ................................................................................. 168 2.113 Elektroda pita dalam beberapa konfigurasi ......................................... 169 2.114 Elektroda Pelat .................................................................................... 169 2.115 Pengukuran Metoda 3 Kutub .............................................................. 175 2.116 Pengukuran Metoda 2 Kutub .............................................................. 175 2.117 Prinsip pengukuran tahanan elektroda pengetanahan menggunakan metoda jatuh tegangan – 3 titik ................................... 176 2.118 Daerah resistansi efektif dari dua elektroda yang tumpang-tindih ...... 177 2.119 Posisi elektroda Y di luar daerah resistansi efektif dari dua elektroda yang tidak tumpang-tindih ................................................... 178 2.120 Pengukuran resistansi elektroda pengetanahan menggunakan Metoda 62% ........................................................................................ 178 2.121 Daerah resistansi efektif tumpang-tindih ............................................. 179 2.122 Daerah pengukuran 62% .................................................................... 180 2.123 Sistem Multi-elektroda ......................................................................... 181 2.124 Metoda pengukuran dua-titik ............................................................... 183 2.125 Pengukuran kontinyuitas hantaran pengetanahan .............................. 183 2.126 Metoda pengukuran derau dalam sistem pengetanahan .................... 184 2.127 Cara menetralisi noise dengan melilitkan kabel-kabel ukur secara bersama-sama ........................................................................ 184 2.128 Cara menghindari noise dengan pengaturan rentangan kabel-kabel ukur ............................................................................................ 185 2.129 Pentralisiran noise menggunakan kabel perisai (shielded cables)...... 185 2.130 Cara mengatasi tahanan kontak antara elektroda dengan tanah sekitarnya ............................................................................................ 186 2.131 Penggunaan kawat kasa sebagai pengganti dari elektroda bantu....... 186 2.132 Kasus putusnya panghantar netral pada sistem PNP ......................... 196 2.133 Pengukuran resistansi kawat fasa, netral dan pembumian ................. 199 2.134 Pengukuran resistansi kawat penghantar melingkar fasa dan netral ................................................................................................... 199 2.135 Pengukuran resistansi kawat penghantar melingkar fasa dan pembumian ......................................................................................... 199 3.1 Jenis-jenis seterika ................................................................................ 222 3.2 Kabel daya ............................................................................................. 222 3.3 Jenis-jenis Elemen pemanas ................................................................. 223 3.4 Jenis-jenis alas seterika ......................................................................... 223 3.5 Penutup dan pemberat .......................................................................... 223 3.6 Knob dan pengatur suhu ........................................................................ 224 3.7 Tangkai seterika ..................................................................................... 224 3.8 Ikhtisar bagian-bagian utama seterika ................................................... 227 3.9 Mesin cuci pakaian ................................................................................ 228 3.10 Motor dan beban pemberat .................................................................... 229 Teknik Pemanfaatan Tenaga Listrik xiii 3.11 Sistem penyangga pulley ....................................................................... 229 3.12 Sistem peredam getaran ........................................................................ 230 3.13 Bagian belakang mesin dan katup solenoid ........................................... 230 3.14 Piranti anti-siphon .................................................................................. 231 3.15 Saluran masuk (inlet) air dan tempat limpahan air ................................. 231 3.16 Pompa dan saluran air ........................................................................... 231 3.17 Pompa air ............................................................................................... 232 3.18 Saklar pemilih tipikal .............................................................................. 232 3.19 Keadaan di dalam saklar ........................................................................ 233 3.20 Mekanisme saklar pemilih ...................................................................... 233 3.21 Saklar kontrol temperatur dan kecepatan .............................................. 233 3.22 Gambaran saklar kontrol kecepatan dan temperatur ............................. 234 3.23 Kontrol ketinggian air ............................................................................. 234 3.24 Mesin pengering pakaian ....................................................................... 236 3.25 Sirkulasi udara di dalam mesin .............................................................. 237 3.26 Elemen pemanas ................................................................................... 237 3.27 Lubang-lubang udara ............................................................................. 237 3.28 Tumbler dan pintu .................................................................................. 238 3.29 Lubang-lubang pada pintu dan slot besar ............................................. 238 3.30 Screen kain dan saluran udara .............................................................. 238 3.31 Fan dan saluran buang .......................................................................... 238 3.32 Flens ................................................................................................... 239 3.33 Bantalan ................................................................................................. 239 3.34 Saklar Siklus .......................................................................................... 239 3.35 Saklar siklus dilihat dari belakang .......................................................... 239 3.36 Motor saklar siklus ................................................................................. 240 3.37 Panel kontrol panas ............................................................................... 240 3.38 Sensor suhu ........................................................................................... 241 3.39 Mesin cuci piring .................................................................................... 242 3.40 Mesin cuci piring dalam tatanan yang kompak ...................................... 242 3.41 Saklar control tipikal ............................................................................... 242 3.42 Tempat cuci piring konvensional ........................................................... 242 3.43 Mesin cuci tampak dalam ....................................................................... 243 3.44 Contoh penyambungan ke kran sumber air ........................................... 243 3.45 Sisi dalam mesin bagian atas ................................................................ 243 3.46 Bagian bawah mesin lengkap dengan rak ............................................. 243 3.47 Bagian bawah mesinrak dilepas ............................................................ 244 3.48 Wadah garam ......................................................................................... 244 3.49 Proses di dalam mesin cuci ................................................................... 244 3.50 Pembersihan menggunakan pembersih vakum ..................................... 246 3.51 Bagian-bagian utama mesin pembersih vakum ..................................... 247 3.52 Jenis sikat putar ..................................................................................... 247 3.53 Contoh tas debu ..................................................................................... 248 3.54 Jenis-jenis perlengkapan pengisap ........................................................ 249 3.55 Pembersih vakum jenis berdiri ............................................................... 249 3.56 Prinsip kerja pembersih vakum basah/kering ........................................ 249 3.57 Toaster ................................................................................................... 251 3.58 Elemen pemanas toaster ....................................................................... 251 xiv Teknik Pemanfaatan Tenaga Listrik 3.59 Slot tempat roti dilihat dari atas .............................................................. 252 3.60 Mekanisme penurunan toaster .............................................................. 252 3.61 Mekanisme penurun rak roti .................................................................. 252 3.62 Papan-papan rangkaian ......................................................................... 253 3.63 Prinsip pemanasan pada kompor listrik ................................................. 256 3.64 Kompor dengan elemen pemanas terbuka ............................................ 257 3.65 Kompor listrik jenis dengan 4 piring panas (hot-plate) ........................... 258 3.66 Konstruksi hot plate ............................................................................... 258 3.67 Kompor listrik jenis radiasi ..................................................................... 258 3.68 Konfigurasi rangkaian elemen pemanas ................................................ 259 3.69 Skema mekanisme kendali kompor listrik tipikal .................................... 259 3.70 Kompor induksi ...................................................................................... 260 3.71 Sistem kontrol ........................................................................................ 263 3.72 Daya masukan tegangan tinggi ............................................................. 263 3.73 Bagian tegangan tinggi .......................................................................... 263 3.74 Microwave digital ................................................................................... 264 3.75 Tombol-tombol fungsi microwave .......................................................... 264 3.76 Piring putar di ruang masak ................................................................... 265 3.77 Pemutar piring dan landasan putar ........................................................ 265 3.78 Elemen pemanas grill ............................................................................ 265 3.79 Bagian dalam samping .......................................................................... 265 3.80 Pengering rambut tipikal ........................................................................ 267 3.81 Kipas angin pembangkit aliran udara ..................................................... 268 3.82 Saklar pengatur kecepatan motor .......................................................... 269 3.83 Elemen pemanas ................................................................................... 269 3.84 Arah semburan udara melewati elemen pemanas ................................. 269 3.85 Isolasi dan penghalang protektif ............................................................ 270 3.86 Kulkas tipikal .......................................................................................... 272 3.87 Bagan kelengkapan kulkas .................................................................... 272 3.88 Siklus refrigerasi .................................................................................... 274 3.89 Proses pendinginan ............................................................................... 274 3.90 Freezer dan pengatur suhu .................................................................... 275 3.91 Koil kondensor ....................................................................................... 275 3.92 Ventilasi udara ruang kompresor ........................................................... 275 3.93 Ruang pendingin .................................................................................... 276 3.94 Lubang pembuangan limbah air ............................................................ 276 3.95 Diagram pengkondisi udara (AC) ........................................................... 278 3.96 AC Jendela ............................................................................................ 279 3.97 AC jendela tampak dalam ...................................................................... 279 3.98 Prinsip unit AC-Split ............................................................................... 280 3.99 Unit kondensasi ..................................................................................... 280 3.100 Prinsip AC-chiller ................................................................................. 281 3.101 Menara pendingin (cooling tower) tipikal ............................................. 282 3.102 Alat pemanas air dengan tangki terbuka dan tangki tertutup .............. 284 3.103 Bagian dalam tangki air ....................................................................... 285 3.104 Alat pemanas air tunggal .................................................................... 286 4.1 Diagram kotak sistem kendali ................................................................ 288 Teknik Pemanfaatan Tenaga Listrik xv 4.2 Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) generator ...................................... 290 4.3 Bilah-bimetal sebagai pengendali on-off ................................................ 291 4.4 Zona netral ............................................................................................. 292 4.5 Aksi pengendali tiga posisi ..................................................................... 292 4.6 Tanggapan step pengendali P ............................................................... 293 4.7 Diagram kotak pengendali P .................................................................. 293 4.8 Hubungan keluaran dan masukan pengendali Proporsional ................. 294 4.9 Offset pengendali P ................................................................................ 294 4.10 Diagram kotak pengendali I ................................................................... 295 4.11 Tanggapan pengendali I terhadap error step tetap ................................ 296 4.12 Laju perubahan keluaran terhadap error ................................................ 296 4.13 Keluaran pengendali fungsi perubahan error ......................................... 297 4.14 Diagram kotak pengendali D .................................................................. 2974.15 Tanggapan step pengendali PI .............................................................. 298 4.16 Diagram kotak pengendali PI ................................................................. 298 4.17 Tanggapan step dan diagram kotak pengendali PID ............................. 298 4.18 Realisasi pengendali dua-posisi ............................................................. 299 4.19 Realisasi pengendali P ........................................................................... 300 4.20 Realisasi pengendali I ............................................................................ 300 2.21 Realisasi pengendali Diferensial ............................................................ 301 4.22 Realisasi pengendali PI .......................................................................... 301 4.23 Realisasi pengendali PD ........................................................................ 302 4.24 Implementasi pengendali PID ................................................................ 303 4.25 Ruang lingkup elektronika daya ............................................................. 304 4.26 Simbol dan konstruksi dioda .................................................................. 306 4.27 Karakteristik dioda .................................................................................. 306 4.28 Simbol dan konstruksi thyristor .............................................................. 308 4.29 Karakteristik thyristor .............................................................................. 308 4.30 Proteksi dari arus beban lebih: proteksi fasa dan proteksi cabang ........ 310 4.31 Proteksi terhadap tegangan lebih .......................................................... 310 4.32 Dua komponen 4-lapis dihubungkan secara berlawanan ...................... 311 4.33 Komponen semikonduktor lima-lapis ..................................................... 311 4.34 Simbol dan karakteristik diac ................................................................. 311 4.35 Contoh diac ............................................................................................ 311 4.36 Simbol dan karakteristik Triac ................................................................ 312 4.37 Contoh spesifikasi triac .......................................................................... 312 4.38 Ikhtisar penyearah dan simbol-simbolnya .............................................. 313 4.39 Penyearah E1U ...................................................................................... 313 4.40 Penyearah B2U ...................................................................................... 315 4.41 Jenis tampilan rangkaian jembatan ........................................................ 315 4.42 Rangkaian penyearah M3U ................................................................... 316 4.43 Bentuk tegangan keluaran penyearah M3U ........................................... 316 4.44 Penyearah B6U ...................................................................................... 317 4.45 Bentuk gelombang tegangan dan dioda-dioda yang konduksi .............. 317 4.46 Penyearah E1C ...................................................................................... 319 4.47 Bentuk gelombang arus dan tegangan keluaran pada E1C ................. 320 4.48 Dioda free-wheeling ............................................................................... 320 4.49 Karakteristik pengaturan E1C ................................................................ 320 Next >